Cultural Relativism Is Truth Defined By Our Culture Or Our Culture By

Cultural Relativism: Is Truth Defined By Our Culture Or Our Culture By Truth? In his article Cultural relativism and cultural values, Melville Herkovits defines the principle of cultural relativism as judgements are based on experience, and experience is interpreted by each individual in terms of his own enculturation (26). This is the basic premise of cultural relativism, that beliefs, values, and morals are all based on ones culture. Therefore, since morality is based on society and different societies have different views of right and wrong, there can be no moral absolutes. Since there are no absolutes, under this view of cultural relativism all moral views determined by ones culture are deemed true whether they conflict or not. Upon first glance, relativism seems like a very appropriate concept of morality in the world. It is clear to see that there are differences of what is acceptable and unacceptable in different societies across the world. Growing up in Western culture I have grown a fondness for meat, especially steak. It is a momentous occasion when I can go out or fix a nice, juicy steak for a meal, the bigger the better. This is not a problem in my culture, save those few health conscience people who say I will die by heart disease, but I dont consider them part of my society anyway. However, if I were raised in an eastern, Hindu, culture these dietary practices would be considered wrong. My act of eating cow would be considered a moral atrocity. From examples like these and many others around the world we can see a good case for different cultures having different moral views, but is that really the case? I believe that at a surface level cultural relativism holds some merit, however if we look deeper into the issue we can find a flawed, and inaccurate theory for the way that the world should work. Some of the biggest arguments given in defense of cultural relativism are the many different practices of different cultures from around the world. Melville J. Herskovits gives examples of a West African culture of Dahomey, which practice polygamy. He also states different religious traditions of different cultures such as African societies that incorporate possession of an individual by a god to be the supreme religious experience. In an exert from his book Ethics: Discovering Right and Wrong, Louis P. Pojman describes an Eskimo culture that, allow their elderly to die by starvation, (33). These are all strong examples, but do they actually support the idea that these cultures have different moral values? In the examples given by Herskovits about religious traditions being different this is true, there are various religious practices in various cultures that have dissimilar habits. These however are religious practices and not moral concepts. One church chooses to worship their god using a full orchestra and robed choir, while another chooses to simply have a piano and a singer. Do these churches have different moral principles, or are they merely choosing different expressions of worship? With Pojmans example of the practice of a harsh euthanasia by the Eskimos, he goes further to explain that it is not the moral principle that causes the Eskimos to leave their elderly to starve, but the harsh environment. In the harsh environment of the arctic it is not considered a good action, but a necessary one in order for the survival of the whole tribe. Were the tribes to live in a tropical or temperate environment where food is not so scarce this brand of euthanasia would not be practiced. If we also look closer into the example given in the beginning of this paper we can see that the immorality of eating beef is not based on moral principles, but different beliefs. The example of a Hindu culture, (taken from a very intelligent professor of mine) being outraged at the Western practice of eating cow meat is based on the religious belief that dead relatives are reincarnated into animals such as cows. Now this is not a belief held by other Western religions, therefore the consumption of beef is freely practiced. However, what the two cultures do share is that it is immoral to eat relatives. As we

Professionalism

Professionalism Introduction Thomas Kuhn’s edition of the Structure of Scientific Revolution that was written in 1962 made him to be regarded as one of the great academician of science. He wrote on the science history and came up with important notions concerning philosophy.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Professionalism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The book ‘The Structure of Scientific Revolution’ made him famous and its one of the academic books that is cited mostly today. Kuhn made significant contributions that helped to create a different approach as far as the philosophy of science is concerned. He came up with a completely different view about life and the scientific changes that occurs during ones lifetime. He argued that science has really enjoyed stable growth periods that are characterized by revolutions, which are reversionary. The science visionaries that preceded Kuhn did not have any diff erent views but they only made some advancement to what Kuhn had already initiated. Kuhn held the view that science was basically altered profoundly by a new law that brought about significant changes in the field of science. Just like in politics, science also involves social institutions and thus Kuhn argues that no one scientist can work alone and that science are usually conducted by a group of scientists who have a similar research agenda. Kuhn also presented the idea that science usually doesn’t evolve towards truth gradually but instead there arises some periodic revolutions known as paradigm shifts i.e. the journey towards scientific revolution is marathon one but not an instant one (Kuhn, 1962). This paper explores the meaning of the period of pre-science and normal science according to Kuhn. The paper also distinguishes the two periods by the use of the period of mercantilism as well as the century of classical economics. Finally the paper examines on how the distin ctions by the two periods agrees with the Kuhn’s views i.e. to see if there is a correlation between the Kuhn’s distinction of both the pre science and normal science and the classical economists’ mercantilism and the century of classical economics . Definitions of pre science and normal science During his analysis on the science history, Kuhn identified that there are normally three phases that are common in the development of science namely; the pre-science, normal science and the emergence of problems. Kuhn describes the first phase i.e. the pre-science, as a period which was characterized by the absence of consensus regarding the manner in which the theories were developed. Some theorists thus criticize this phase as having no clear explanation about the concepts and development of science while others claims that the theories are too comprehensive as they lack consensus and explanation. Kuhn was noted that the theories in this phase were incomplete and inco mpatible.Advertising Looking for term paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More He defined pre-science period as an early development period of field research during which the field is delimiting its scope and subject matter i.e. a period during which the field is establishing its roots. During this period, no single theoretical position or paradigm is sufficiently accepted so as to justify a research effort that is well concerted and this renders the research activity to proceed in a piecemeal manner. It is also during this period that a range of diverse research topics are researched and the research topics linked in tenuous manners because subject matter itself doesn’t fit well with the defined pre- exiting fields due to the existence of common theoretic themes which are unifying. The noble trends of this period includes the emergence of the experimental science, as well as the shrinkage of relative distance as a result of the major improvements in communication and transportation and rapid innovation, authoritarian of nations and civic politics (Arbeitskreis, 1961) The pre -science period is replaced by normal science. Kuhn termed this period ‘normal science’ because the study field is deemed to be mature to hold a consensus view that is in accordance with the theories and methods that are used in understanding the subject. Normal science is deemed to occur once the scientists agree sufficiently on the fundamentals that allow evaluation of the contested claims through sharing of the standards. Normal science emerges after one of the theories in pre-science wins. A scientist who is working within the normal period phase has theories in which Kuhn equates to the paradigm based kind of research i.e. the research that is based firmly upon the precedent of scientific achievements. Normal research is usually characterized by the emergence of only one paradi gm with sufficient power capable of attracting others from the various competing scientific fields. Normal science activities are distinct and separate from the activities that occur during the paradigm crisis and the prescience. Kuhn held the view that mature science is as a result of the revolutions that occurs during the normal periods. In normal periods, scientists strive to solve problems arising from the need to view the world as one paradigm. Normal science development is a crucial step as far as the advancement of a given field is concerned. Kuhn (1962) argued that the emergence of parallel professionalism like specialist journalists is signs of the existence of normal science. Thomas Kuhn demonstrates that intellectual commitments are usually held in a tenaciously manner and that they can rarely be dislodged either by logic or evidence which is contrary. This is because the ideologies or commitments are suited to come up with scientific descriptions concerning the manner in which the work is performed and also constituting normative positions entailing the manner in which the entire globe should work.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Professionalism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Mercantilism and the century of classical economics Period The economic theory of mercantilism talks about a nation’s prosperity in terms of production capacity and other related parameters. It holds a nation’s prosperity .It was the overriding theory in Europe during the early period i.e. from 15th to 18th century. During this period, the workers carried on production and also controlled the production means. Merchants were the capitalists and the capital mainly consisted of inventories and money. This period reflected the transition of economic conditions based on the improvement in the production capacity of the workers. Adam Smith who was an economist came up with the Mercantilism phil osophy through the publication of book that was referred to as the Wealth of Nations (Smith, 1976). Like the science structure by Kuhn, Mercantilism philosophy was characterized by transitions. The earliest period of Mercantilism usually resulted at a time during which the entire Europe region was facing shortage of silver and gold. The period was referred to as bullionsim period and the silver and gold were being termed as bullions and they were valued mainly by weights because there were no paper currencies then. European nations did not have money needed to service the trade volume, which was expanding very rapidly. Bullion policies were thus devised and were aimed at attracting a smooth flow of silver and gold to a given country and also to prohibit their export by keeping them. These restrictions however lasted until seventeenth century. Spain was the only country that applied the bullionist restrictions for a long period as compared to other European Nations. This was due to t he fact that most gold originating from America flowed to Spain directly. This period of mercantilism however is similar to the prescience period as illustrated by Kuhn (Stiles Akaha, 1991). After this period, the desire by Mercantile to maximize silver and gold within a given country facilitated the major attempts by government to design a balance of trade that is favorable. This saw the rise in export of different goods as well as insuring and shipping of those goods. Other measures that were taken in order to encourage trade were monopoly patents issuance e.t.c. These advancements gave some individuals exclusive rights to practice all kind of trades in a certain area. The main reason behind the monopoly rights was to encourage the spirit of inventions. After sometime, the monopoly rights later became severally abused and in turn contributed to a patronage and privileges complex systems. This is in contrary with the Kuhn’s scientific periods whereby the second period of me rcantile brought some form of inconveniences rather than advancements (Guzzini, 1998). Adam Smith could be considered as the father of classical economies because through his work â€Å"The wealth of Nation’s† in 1776 is regarded as its commencement. Classical economies as a term were coined by an economist by the name Karl Marx. It is a set of scientific theories whose proponents were economists if the 19th century who had major concerns in the scientific revolution and dynamism of economic growth.Advertising Looking for term paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The classical economists helped in producing magnificent dynamics at a time when there was emergence of capitalism from feudalism. Also, it was during this period that there were vast changes in the society as a result of industrial revolution. The changes caused the society to seek for an organized system where each person could attain monetary gains by devoting their skills and other resources in production. The classical economists and their immediate predecessors have shifted the economies from individualism to cater for the national border interests where everything is done in the interest of the nation as a whole. The wealth of nations by Adam Smith and the subsequent policies that were devised later enhanced economic growth among nations and it was considered as major developments as far as classical economies are concerned (Ekelund Hebert, 2007). While reacting against the mercantilism theory, classical economics stressed on economic free ideas that were stress free for ins tance free competition and leissez-faire system. Many principles of this theory originated from Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations through which nation’s wealth was considered to be the greatest as citizens continued to pursue their individual interests. Classical economics as a theory assumes the principle of labor and full employment. The lapses that occur from full employment are considered as only abnormal. Their explanation however does not form a part of classical economics subject matter (Kurtz et al, 2007 pg.65). Just like Kuhn’s scientific theories, the mercantilism theory and classical economies theory are similar in that the theories have been accepted generally by the economists and have therefore been revised period after period. Although the underlying principles have over the years been elaborated and refined by different writers, they usually forms the core of any arguments and cannot in one way or another be phased out. For instance, the classical p rinciples have been widely accepted world wide thus rendering them to be labeled classical (Salmon, 1999). Thomas Kuhn in his structure of Scientific Revolutions argues that natural sciences history has been faced with periodic crises especially when paradigm is rejected, challenged and displaced by the emergence of new paradigm. The process thus is characterized with both sociological and well epistemological aspects which are defined by the cognitive and regulative nature of the paradigm period. However, besides Keynesian revolution, no change in paradigm phases has been experienced as compared to those of natural sciences. This is because of the economic paradigm nature, which is not exposed to falsification, and also less precise. Crucial experiments and critical anomalies do not occur in economics as opposed to natural sciences. The paradigm change process may therefore serve well as an important type for clarifying the interrelationships that exists between the conceptual, ter minological, professional and personal elements which are involved in advancement of economic ideas and opinions like those episodes that results from classical economics emergence (Guzzini, 1998). Compared to economic theory, the scientific theory lacks progress because scientific theories are usually deemed to be great than the theories that are advanced by the predecessors as they are assumed to represent the true picture of nature. Conclusion Thomas Kuhn wrote Structure of Scientific Revolution in 1962. This made him a renowned great academician of science. In his writings, he made important notions about philosophy. This made him to be a famous academician. In his work, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), Kuhn identified periods of prehistory and century of pre science. Kuhn’s definition of pre science and century of normal science has great similarities to what is perceived from mercantilism and century of classical economics. Kuhn concluded by mentioning th at the field of science has been susceptible to prejudice fad, fashion and delusion in one way or another as a result of human endeavors. Reference List Arbeitskreis, G. (1961). Eastern Germany, Economy Holzner-Verlag. German: Wuerzburg Ekelund, R.B. Hebert, R. F. (2007). A history of economic theory and method, fifth edition. Canada: McGraw-Hill Publishing Guzzini, S. (1998). Realism in international relations and international political economy. US: Routledge. Kuhn, T. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago press. Kurz, H et.al. (2007). Interpreting classical economic studies in long-period analysis. New York: Routledge. Salmon, M. (1999). Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.Pg.326. Smith, A. (1976). An inquiry into the nature and the causes of the Wealth of Nations. London: J.Dent, p.406. Stiles, K. Akaha, T. (1991). International political economy. New York: HarperCollins

English 11 A Essays

English 11 A Essays English 11 A Paper English 11 A Paper Essay Topic: Literature According to William Ellery Channing, national literature includes The thoughts of profound and original minds and important works in philosophy Use context clues to define the word: Interrogate The detective will interrogate the witness and write down his answers. Question Native American stories often depict nature as a spiritual mother Which type of oral tradition is the most popular across Native American tribes? The creation story Why was literacy such a prime concern in the Massachusetts Bay colony? So people could read the bible and protect themselves from sin How does early american english differ from contemporary english? Early American english is generally more formal Which of the following statements gives the best summation of life in the Plymouth Plantation? There was discord and tension among the settlers, but they resolved their differences. Puritain writers did all of the following except use sensory descriptions to have readers experience what they wrote In persuasive writing its important to Anticipate and address counter arguments, clearly state your position, and provide facts and examples to back up your position. In Indians Are a People, Not Mascots, Redskin was originally a term for The bounty placed on Indians In Indians Are a People, Not Mascots, the governments first target in educating Indian children was their language If youre reading a book and it says Professor Smith is hatching an insidious plot, you know he is dangerous Which of the following statements about Anne Bradstreet is NOT true? Anne Bradstreet was never married Which of the following phrases best defines rhythm? A poems cadence, pace, or ongoing momentum Yet for part payment take this simple mite. Use context clues to determine which of the following words is the best synonym for mite. A coin of little value Johnathan Edwards was a preacher Why is Edwards god so angry? Because men are sinful and wicked What strategy does Edwards use to make the applications of his conclusions seem very personal and relevant to his audience? He switches from a third person POV to a second person POV What writing convention does Jonathan Edwards use to persuade his audience? Imagery, metaphor, hyperbole What movement extinguished many revivals leading up to the Great Awakening The Enlightenment Olauduah Equiano wrote The first autobiography by a black man in america The term the middle passage refers to The trip between West Africa and the islands of the Caribbean Which is try of the Equianos position on the voyage? He was young and so not fettered Identify the correct denotative and connotative meaning of the word loathsome hateful;negative When Thomas Paine writes about reconciliation, he is referring to The colonies staying peacefully connected with Great Britain Which of the following statements about Common Sense is NOT true? Thomas Paine was hanged for treason after writing Common Sense Thomas Paine believed American should be an asylum, a safe place, for all people In this context, does the asylum have a positive or negative connotation positive Thomas Paine wrote Common Sense to Colonists in 1776, prior to the signing fo the Declaration of Independence

Opinion paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Opinion paper - Essay Example exual predators, including uncovering their networks, but the former must be cautious in not abusing its limitations and breaching the Constitutional rights of their targets. Some state laws assert that entrapment is not a legal way of apprehending criminals, depending on the strategies and context involved, but it can be adequate as a strategy for catching real criminals. Officers can pose as juveniles or pimps, and it is appropriate, if this can help them catch true criminals, who are different from â€Å"players.† Players are people who are chatting only because of their perverse sexual fantasies. They do not â€Å"intend† to participate in criminal acts. Law enforcement officers can entrap sexual predators on the Internet, as long as they avoid coaxing and harassing the targets into doing something illegal. They should not force or manipulate their targets through fraud too. James 4:7 says: â€Å"Submit yourselves therefore to God. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you.† If these â€Å"players† are not doers of sexual crimes, they will not be â€Å"entrapped.† If they become entrapped as part of the policeâ₠¬â„¢s undercover operations, then they will meet the force of the law. Resisting the devil is the first step in resisting crimes. When successful, not only will the devil flee, but undercover cops as

Governing Global Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Governing Global Business - Essay Example One of such trends is growing role of multinational companies not only in a business world, but in the whole society. Transnational companies have influence equal to influence of some countries. That is why it is important to study their role and predict possible future. It is going to be the main task of this research paper. Big attention is going to be paid to national economies and place of TNCs in the countries of North Africa. To begin with it would be reasonable to provide background information about the region under consideration. North Africa is the widest part of the mainland. This region of Africa includes the following countries: Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia, and Western Sahara. Canary Islands, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Madeira are also sometimes referred to North Africa. North Africa is the most developed among African countries. The most developed are the following countries: Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria. This region has a favorable economic and geographical position, situated at the crossroads of three continents - Europe, Asia and Africa. Trade has always played an important role, especially after the construction of the Suez Canal. Then the region gained important military-strategic importance. Countries in the region are heterogeneous in terms of economic development. Basis countries are members of OPEC, where GDP per capita is 17-20 thousand dollars. The region is rich in minerals (phosphates, chromite, bauxite, zinc), but the main resource is energy - oil and natural gas. Profits from the sale of oil - "petrodollars" in recent decades have been invested in the economy. According to experts, this figure reaches more than a trillion dollars. Most of them went to the creation of new industries in these countries: automotive, petroleum, chemistry, organic synthesis, basic chemistry, light industry and others. Some countries in the region have invested heavily in the creation of

Magic of Reckless Policies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Magic of Reckless Policies - Essay Example In the last quarter of 2011, the GDP growth rate stood at 3 percent (BEA). In 2011, the GDP at current prices amounted to $15.094 billion or $13.315,1 at the 2005 prices (BEA). In 2010, the GDP at 2005 prices amounted to $13.088 billion. In 2011, it was the durable goods manufacturing that led the growth (BEA). Manufacturing value increased by 11.2 percent in 2010, and then again by 7.9 percent in 2011 (BEA). In comparison to durable goods, the services producing sector grew by 3 percent in 2010, and only 1.6 percent in 2011 (BEA). However, consumers suffered in 2012 from increased inflation and in turn decreased consumption of durables. An average person in the US benefitted from the positive GDP growth. In March of 2012, the real disposable personal income increased by 0.4 percent (BEA). The growth rate in the last quarter of 2011 was 1.7 percent (BEA). The cause of this decrease has been attributed to a rise in consumer prices in 2012 from 1.2 percent increase in 2011, to an addit ional 2.4 percent increase in 2012 (BEA). Real consumer spending, i.e. consumer spending adjusted for an increase in prices, increased 0.5 percent in February and then 0.1 percent in March (BEA). BEA attributes this decrease in the growth rate to a decrease in durable goods spending such as motor vehicles and parts (BEA). Since manufacturing of durables drove the GDP growth rates in 2010 and 2011, a decrease in demand led to a decrease in supply and thus GDP in March 2012. On the other hand, the US current account deficit increased by 2011. The current account deficit stood at $470.9 billion in 2010 and $473.4 billion in 2011 (BEA). The current account deficit in BEA National Economic Accounts is defined as: â€Å"the combined balances on trade in goods and services, income, and net unilateral current transfers.† The deficit amounted to 3.2 percent of GDP in 2010 and 3.1 percent in 2011. When dissected, the deficit on international trade in goods increased in 2011 to $738.3 b illion from $645.9 billion in 2010. However, there was a surplus on international trade in services, which increased to $178.3 billion in 2011, from $145.8 billion in 2010 (BEA). Income payments too were in surplus in 2011. Net financial inflows increased in 2011 from 2010. Whereas they amounted to $254.3 billion in 2010, they increased to $394.1 billion in 2011 (BEA). Unilateral transfers decreased in 2011. In February 2012, the deficit on international trade in goods and services amounted to $46 billion, which is a decrease from $52.5 billion in January 2012 (BEA). It is expected that the current deficit will decrease in 2012 if the trade deficit keeps on decreasing and other variables remain moving as in 2011. Unemployment rate decreased in 2012. In March 2012, the unemployment rate stood at 8.2 percent in comparison to 8.9 percent in 2011 (Bureau of Labor Statistics [BLS]). When comparing to the start of the financial crisis in 2007, it can be seen that by 2010, unemployment rea ched it peek. In 2007, the unemployment rate stood at 4.6 percent. By 2010, the unemployment rate increased to 9.6 percent and has been decreasing since then (BLS). Unemployment has been decreasing in Ohio as well. In February 2012, the unemployment rate stood at 7.6 percent and then decreased by one percentage point by March 2012 (Johnson). In March of 2011, the unemployment rate stood at 8.8 percent (Johnson). Daily Treasury interest rates have decreased since 2011. The interest rate on a one month

Johann Pachelbel's Canon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Johann Pachelbel's Canon - Essay Example Pachelbel in his youth was taught music by Heinrich Schwemmer. He was quick to grasp the gist of music and his talent was eminent. He portrayed outstanding music abilities in his early days and this encouraged his early teachers to nature the talent in him. He went to primary school at the Auditorio Aegediano and in St. Lorenz Hauptschule in his birth town of Nuremberg. He was a quick learner and performed brilliantly in school. He later on went to the University of Altdorf where his family was unable to raise the school fees for his education midway in his course and he was compelled to quite school. On sporting his talent and academic ability, he was offered an opportunity for further education where he joined Gymnasium Poeticum which is in Regensburg where he studied on a scholarship. He did not disappoint as he performed exceptionally well and was among the top students. He was in fact offered an admission in the school to be a surplus in the number of students as the school had already filled its maximum capacity number. Pachelbel got married twice with the first marriage ending by a plague which killed his wife and only son at the time. It was a very tragic event which put him under a lot of stress and even threatened his career in the music industry. Barbara Gabler died in October 1683 only two years after their marriage and leaving him a devastated man. Pachelbel got married to Judith Drommer ten months after the death of his first family as a way to reinvent himself and fill the gap that was so deeply intrenched into his heart. In this second marriage this time he bore two girls and five boys. This was seen as a way to keep an insurance for himself just in case such an event as that of the plague took place again then he would have someone dear to him to live with and to gain emotional support from when he needed it. He fortunately lived a happy life and got to be celebrated widely for his music. He finally died on the 3rd of March 1706 while working a s a church organist and was laid to rest at the St. Rochus Cemetery in his birth place, Nuremberg, Germany. II. Historical Information Pachelbel lived during the historic era of the reign of the Habsburg empire and the Baroque era. It was an extensive empire at the time (17th Century) which had its capital at Vienna. The empire had most of its culture and its taste of music being influenced by predominantly by the Italian culture and this in a major way influenced the music of Pachelbel to have a flare of Italian touch. He grew very famous in the empire and was so fond of the capital Vienna that he spend more than one quarter of his entire life living and practicing music in Vienna. The musicians during the time of Pachelbel made a living almost entirely out of music alone. There were quite a number of job opportunities for anyone who was good in music. Pachelbel is one of the veteran musicians of the time and he spent his life making a career out of music till his death at the age of 53. In fact at some point in time Pachelbel was offered jobs but he declined. He already had a job at a church where they considered him a very important part of the society and his departure will would leave a huge gap in the community. This led to the church offering him an increase of salary and he opted to stay on in the church for another four years. Musicians at the time worked as court organists, church organists, tutors in